Microstructure, mechanical performance, and sustainability of 3D-printed steel connections for modular construction: a systematic review of wire arc additive manufacturing and powder bed fusion technologies
File(s)
Published version (in press)
Author(s)
Kamalaseelan, Kajeenthan
Lingaretnam, Jeyasutha
Sifan, Mohamed
Suntharalingam, Thadshajini
Poologanathan, Keerthan
Type
Journal Article
Abstract
The microstructural characteristics of additively manufactured steels including columnar grain morphology, phase transformation behaviour, interlayer porosity, and thermally driven anisotropy govern the structural performance of 3D-printed connections in steel modular construction. Yet the process–structure–property (PSP) relationships linking fabrication conditions to connection-level behaviour have not been systematically examined across the available literature. This systematic review bridges materials science and structural engineering by evaluating how microstructural evolution in Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) and Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) translates into connection-level performance for inter-module steel joints. Additive manufacturing enables geometrically optimised steel connections with topology-driven internal architectures, functionally graded microstructures, and near-net-shape deposition that improve force transfer, enhance energy absorption, and reduce material consumption. This review evaluates mechanical performance encompassing ultimate strength, stiffness, ductility, fatigue behaviour, cyclic loading response, fabrication defects, print-induced anisotropy, corrosion resistance, and characterisation methodologies, anchoring each to underlying metallurgical mechanisms. Topology-optimised 3D-printed steel nodes achieve 35–75% weight reductions whilst maintaining or improving load-carrying capacity. Environmental assessments indicate up to 88% reduction in global warming potential and 95% reduction in material waste when additive manufacturing is integrated with design optimisation. Challenges including print-induced microstructural anisotropy (13–20% strength variation), thermal residual stresses approaching yield strength, limited codified standards, and unresolved corrosion performance in structural environments are critically discussed. Drawing on 95 peer-reviewed sources, this review provides a materials-science-grounded reference for the development of lighter, more resilient, and environmentally sustainable modular steel structures through additive manufacturing.
Date Issued
2026-09-18
Date Acceptance
2026-09-04
Citation
Next Materials, 2026
ISSN
2949-8228
Publisher
Elsevier
Journal / Book Title
Next Materials
Copyright Statement
© 2026 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
License URL
Publication Status
Published online
Article Number
103453
Date Publish Online
2026-09-18