From spent zinc-carbon batteries to lithium-ion batteries: An eco-friendly method to recycle graphite
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Supporting information
Accepted version
Author(s)
Type
Journal Article
Abstract
The eco-friendly recycling of graphite from used zinc‑carbon (Znsingle bondC) batteries presents a viable and economical approach for the advancement of lithium-ion battery (LIB) anodes. This investigation involved the recovery of graphite through ball milling techniques, followed by a detailed structural characterization. XRD analysis showed that the ball milled graphite had a partially ordered structure with lattice parameters a = 2.4704 Å and c = 6.7516 Å, which is comparable to that of commercial graphite (a = 2.4725 Å and c = 6.7526 Å) and higher defect density (ID/IG = 1.069) as revealed by Raman spectroscopy as compared to commercial graphite (ID/IG = 0.22). TEM images showed increased structural disorder with broken layers and the XPS results further confirms the presence of predominant sp2-hybridized carbon with C–C/C=C peak at 284.70 eV. FTIR analysis revealed the presence of surface functional groups, such as Csingle bondH bonds, indicating possible surface alterations in the recycling process. These structural characteristics, in particular higher defects, and disorder, promote Li-ion diffusion and surface reactivity. Ball milled graphite showed a specific capacity of 367.52 mAh/g at 1C, maintained over 200 cycles at a Coulombic efficiency of 99.05 %. This value is similar to that for commercial graphite with a capacity of 371.39 mAh/g and a Coulombic efficiency of ca. 100 %. Although the recycled graphite demonstrates a slightly reduced initial efficiency, it provides effective long-term stability, economic advantages, and positive environmental impacts. This work demonstrates that a safe and scalable approach to defect-engineered graphite with impressive electrochemical performance and provides promise of environmentally friendly anode for Li-ion battery applications.
Date Issued
2025-10-30
Date Acceptance
2025-08-25
Citation
Journal of Energy Storage, 2025, 134 (Part A)
ISSN
2352-152X
Publisher
Elsevier
Journal / Book Title
Journal of Energy Storage
Volume
134
Issue
Part A
Copyright Statement
Copyright © 2025 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies. This is the author’s accepted manuscript made available under a CC-BY licence in accordance with Imperial’s Research Publications Open Access policy (www.imperial.ac.uk/oa-policy)
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Publication Status
Published
Article Number
118244
Date Publish Online
2025-08-28