Influence of ventilation rate on the potential for indoor particulate matter exposure
File(s)
Published version
Author(s)
Wood, Samuel
Burridge, Henry
Alice, Handy
Wood, Samuel
Type
Journal Article
Abstract
Background Singing is the production of musical tones with the voice. Like breathing, it requires breath control and uses many of the same anatomical structures. This universal human behaviour has been practiced for thousands of years in various cultural contexts, including religious ceremonies, social gatherings, and artistic performances. Previous research suggests that singing and dancing can improve multiple aspects of health in both healthy individuals and those with respiratory conditions. This study aimed to explore perceptions regarding the use of traditional Saudi singing and dancing as a method to promote general and respiratory health in the Makkah region of Saudi Arabia. Methods This observational, cross-sectional survey investigated perceptions regarding the impact of traditional Saudi singing and dancing on general and respiratory health. Data were collected using a questionnaire that included open-ended and closed-ended questions. Quantitative data were summarised as frequencies and percentages, while qualitative data from open-ended questions were used to identify a list of key barriers. Ethical approval was obtained from Umm Al-Qura University in Makkah ID (HAPO-02-K-012-2023-12-1911). Results A total of 273 people participated, of whom 153 (56.0%) were female, the majority were aged 21 to 41 years (63.0%), and 88 (32.2%) reported chronic respiratory diseases. Among the participants, 203 (74.4%) engaged in Saudi traditional singing and dancing, 120 (59.1%) believed that traditional singing and dancing had a positive impact on general health, and 93 (45.8%) agreed that traditional singing and dancing are perceived as potentially improving lung health. Participants who actively engaged in traditional singing and dancing were significantly more likely to perceive associated health benefits compared to those who did not, with differences reaching statistical significance (p < 0.001). Age was significantly associated with engagement, χ² = 6.20, p = 0.045, Cramer's V = 0.151, with engagement highest among participants aged 20 years and under (85.3%), followed by those aged over 41 years (75.8%) and those aged 21-41 years (69.8%). Female participants were significantly more likely than males to report a lack of community support as a barrier to practicing traditional Increased ventilation is widely recommended for improving indoor air quality, yet ventilation can also act as a pathway for outdoor particulate matter to enter indoor spaces. We investigate the mechanisms and extent by which ventilation may increase the potential for particulate matter exposure using both physical and statistical modelling. The physical model explores the dynamics of an idealised room over differing exposure-durations, exploring the duration-averaged particulate matter concentration as an indicator of the potential for exposure. This indicates that whilst duration-averaged indoor concentrations exhibit a simple linear increase with increasing outdoor concentrations, increasing the ventilation rate can either increase or decrease the potential for exposure indoors. Moreover, the physical model identifies two conditions under which increased ventilation can reduce duration-averaged indoor PM2.5: transient removal from initially elevated indoor concentrations, and cases where indoor sources dominate over ingress from outdoors. We further exploit the large-scale ‘SAMHE’ dataset of air quality measurements made in UK schools. Using generalised additive modelling regression, we show that outdoor particulate matter concentration is the strongest predictor of the potential for particulate matter exposure, although its interaction with ventilation reveals a more complex non-linear relationship. Over the two school years of data examined, the statistical modelling suggests that increasing ventilation by 5Ls−1p−1 would, on average, increase daily mean indoor PM n2.5
by approximately 0.74 μgm−3, with around 99% of schools predicted to experience increases, particularly those with higher outdoor pollution and lower baseline ventilation. However, these predictions were sensitive to the ventilation rates being achieved and the outdoor particulate matter concentrations. While increases in the ventilation rates associated with these schools would likely result in relatively small increases in the particulate matter concentrations therein, the reverse would be expected for spaces with larger indoor sources such as homes, dependent upon outdoor conditions.
by approximately 0.74 μgm−3, with around 99% of schools predicted to experience increases, particularly those with higher outdoor pollution and lower baseline ventilation. However, these predictions were sensitive to the ventilation rates being achieved and the outdoor particulate matter concentrations. While increases in the ventilation rates associated with these schools would likely result in relatively small increases in the particulate matter concentrations therein, the reverse would be expected for spaces with larger indoor sources such as homes, dependent upon outdoor conditions.
Date Issued
2026-09-08
Date Acceptance
2026-08-21
Citation
Indoor Environments, 2026, 3 (4)
ISSN
2950-3620
Publisher
Elsevier
Journal / Book Title
Indoor Environments
Volume
3
Issue
4
Copyright Statement
© 2026 Published by Elsevier Inc. on behalf of International Society of Indoor Air Quality and Climate. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ).
Identifier
10.1186/s12906-026-05581-2
Publication Status
Published
Article Number
100191
Date Publish Online
2026-08-31