Occurrence of PFAS in municipal drinking water: a participatory case study in London, UK
File(s)
Published version
Author(s)
Type
Journal Article
Abstract
Globally, per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) contamination has been reported in numerous environmental matrices, and there is a growing body of evidence that links PFAS exposure to adverse health effects. Consuming contaminated drinking water is potentially one of the most common routes of human exposure from these compounds. The spatial and temporal variability of 38 PFAS in 210 household tap water and public water fountains were assessed using a participatory sampling campaign in London, UK. The performance of commercially available water filters to remove PFAS was also assessed. Individual PFAS concentrations ranged from 0.6 ± 0.1 ng L−1 (PFBS) to 9.1 ± 0.2 ng L−1 (PFOS), and total PFAS concentrations ranged from 3 ng L−1 to 41 ng L−1 (mean = 18 ± 8 ng L−1, median = 18 ng L−1). Overall, 100% (n = 210) of all tap drinking water samples tested were within the lowest action threshold currently in place for England (<10 ng L−1 for individual PFAS), and all samples were below the threshold for total PFAS (<100 ng L−1). The daily concentration of PFAS did not substantially vary over the course of a month in three homes tested intensively. The risk to humans posed by four specific PFAS (PFOS, PFOA, PFNA, and PFHxS) in London drinking water was below the weekly tolerable intake established by the European Food Standards Authority (EFSA). Five water filters tested removed at least 85% of all PFAS studied in spiked (50 ng L−1) water samples, therefore providing an effective way to reduce concentrations in regions where such contamination is of greater concern and/or where PFAS are not routinely monitored. Our findings provide reassuring evidence about the quality of municipal drinking water in London and the UK as a whole when considering official measurements made at treatment plants. We also provide benchmark risk assessment data for the future and information to concerned citizens about the quality of tap drinking water.
Date Issued
2026-07-01
Date Acceptance
2026-04-14
Citation
Environmental Science: Advances, 2026, 5 (7), pp.1700-1709
ISSN
2754-7000
Publisher
The Royal Society of Chemistry
Start Page
1700
End Page
1709
Journal / Book Title
Environmental Science: Advances
Volume
5
Issue
7
Copyright Statement
© 2026 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry Open Access Article. This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported Licence.
License URL
Identifier
10.1039/d6va00076b
Publication Status
Published
Date Publish Online
2026-05-12