Differential imaging X-ray microtomography combined with a steady-state flow apparatus was used to elucidate the displacement processes during waterflooding. We simultaneously measured relative permeability and capillary pressure on a carbonate rock sample extracted from a giant producing oil field. We used the pore-scale images of crude oil and brine to measure the interfacial curvature from which the local capillary pressure was calculated; the relative permeability was found from the imposed fractional flow, the image-measured saturation, and the pressure differential across the sample.

The relative permeabilities indicated favourable oil recovery for the mixed-wettability conditions. The pore-scale images showed that brine started to flow through pinned wetting layers, micro-porosity and water-wet pores, and then filled the centre of the larger oil-wet pores. Oil was drained to low saturation through connected oil layers. The brine relative permeability remained low until brine invaded a connected pathway of smaller throats at a high brine saturation. The interface between the oil and brine had a small average curvature, indicating a low capillary pressure, but we observed remarkable saddle-shaped interfaces with nearly equal but opposite curvatures in orthogonal directions. This implies good oil phase connectivity, consistent with the favourable recovery and low residual oil saturation attained in the experiments.

This work illuminated displacement processes from both macro-pores and micro-pores which have important implications for improved oil recovery and, potentially, on carbon storage. In future, the measured relative permeability, capillary pressure and pore-scale fluid distribution could be used to benchmark and validate pore-scale models.