Impact of COVID-19 on mental health: sociodemographic differences and the moderating effect of religiosity
File(s)
Published version
Author(s)
Type
Journal Article
Abstract
Background and Objectives: This research aimed to examine the impact of sociodemographic characteristics on mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic, with religiosity as a moderator. Materials and Methods: The cross-sectional study was conducted in family medicine clinics within the Primary Healthcare Center of Virovitica-Podravina County among 1131 participants, divided into 2 groups: RC (Recovered from COVID-19; N = 423) and NRC (Not Recovered from COVID-19; N = 708). To ensure clear differentiation, RC participants were defined as individuals with documented positive PCR results for SARS-CoV-2 (prior infection and clinical recovery), whereas NRC participants exhibited consistently negative PCR results and lacked any clinical history of the disease. Group allocation was rigorously based on the review of medical records and corresponding PCR documentation obtained both at the time of recruitment and retrospectively. All data were collected through a questionnaire from September 2022 to September 2023. Participants completed questionnaires measuring their sociodemographic characteristics (gender, age, education, and marital status), levels of depression, anxiety, stress, and level of religiosity. Results: Older participants were more prone to depression, whereas younger participants showed relatively better mental-health indicators. Sociodemographic characteristics were significantly associated with mental health during the pandemic. Religiosity was found to be a significant moderator in the relationship between sociodemographic characteristics and mental health. Individuals with higher levels of religiosity reported higher levels of depression and anxiety, suggesting that religiosity may act as a negative factor in times of crisis. Conclusions: Sociodemographic characteristics were significant predictors of mental health during the pandemic. Religiosity emerged as an important factor, particularly in moderating the relationship between sociodemographic characteristics and mental health. Further research is recommended to develop targeted interventions for vulnerable groups such as women, younger individuals, and those with lower incomes.
Date Issued
2025-10-01
Date Acceptance
2025-10-17
Citation
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2025, 22 (10)
ISSN
1661-7827
Publisher
MDPI AG
Journal / Book Title
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
Volume
22
Issue
10
Copyright Statement
© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/).
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Publication Status
Published
Article Number
1599
Date Publish Online
2025-10-21